articolo postato dall'ottimo zmajeek nell'altro 3d....Originariamente Scritto da Oli
Questa è la situazione del nucleare in Slovacchia, paese di 4 milioni di abitanti, con 4 impianti nucleari in funzione e con altrettanti impianti in progetto.
Nuclear Power in Slovakia
* Slovakia has 6 nuclear reactors generating 55% of its electricity.
* Its first commercial nuclear power reactor began operating in 1972.
* Government commitment to the future of nuclear energy is strong.
Electricity consumption in the Slovakia has been fairly steady since the mid 1990s but is now rising steadily.
Nuclear industry development
In 1958 the Czechoslovak government started building its first nuclear power plant - a gas-cooled heavy water reactor at Bohunice (now in Slovakia). This 104 MWe Bohunice A1 reactor, built by Skoda, was completed in 1972 and ran until 1977. It was closed following a severe accident during refuelling.
In 1972 construction of the present Bohunice plant commenced, with two VVER 440 type 230 reactors (V1 plant) built by Atomenergoexport of Russia and Skoda. In 1976 construction started on two type 213 reactors (V2 plant) built by Skoda. All were designed by Energoproject.
In 1981 construction of the four-unit Mochovce nuclear power plant was commenced by Skoda, using VVER 440/213 reactor units.
Both plants are owned and operated by the state Slovak Electric (SE) utility.
Operating Slovak power reactors
Reactors Model
V=PWR Net MWe First power
Bohunice 1 V-230 408 1978
Bohunice 2 V-230 408 1980
Bohunice 3 V-213 408 1984
Bohunice 4 V-213 408 1985
Mochovce 1 V-213 420 1998
Mochovce 2 V-213 420 1999
Total (6)
2472 MWe
After reviews of their safety, phase 1 upgrading of Bohnuice V1 (units 1 & 2) was undertaken 1991-95, and phase 2 - intended to achieve western European standards - through to 2000. In 2001 Slovakia relicensed Bohunice V1 units for another decade (until the next full safety review), though following the upgrades their operating life is expected to run until 2015.
Under duress, as a precondition for Slovak entry into the EU, the Slovak government committed to closing the Bohunice V1 units 1 and 2 due to perceived safety deficiencies in that early model reactor. The original date specified for closing them down was 2000, though subsequently 2006 and 2008 were agreed in relation to EU accession.
The latter dates were set despite their recent major refurbishment, including replacement of the emergency core cooling systems and modernising the control systems. Bohunice 1 was the first V-230 unit outside the Soviet Union and has now had more upgrading work on it than any other one of its type, costing some US$ 300 million since 1991. Most of the work was financed by the operator, SE. The calculated core damage frequency for both units 1 & 2 is now half the target level set by IAEA for older nuclear plants, and 3% of that estimated for the units in 1991. Slovakia claims that all their design safety deficiencies have been removed by the safety upgrading, and this has been confirmed by all international expert safety review missions.
The Slovak government now has to reconcile its regulator's judgement that the plant is safe for long-term operation with the EU demand for its closure - based, it is claimed, on information which was out of date even at the time.
The units now produce electricity at half the average cost for all Slovak sources, and their closure before Mochovce units 3 & 4 are on line will leave the country critically short of power.
In the lead up to EU accession in 2004, nuclear industry representatives from eastern Europe called for the introduction of transparent and rational EU safety standards rather than punitive closures of reactors which have been substantially upgraded. In particular the Slovak Bohunice 1 & 2 units were cited as prime examples of the high safety standards which such reactors could achieve through upgrading with input from western firms such as Siemens.
An upgrade program on Bohunice units 3 & 4 is under way to improve seismic resistance, cooling systems, and instrument & control (I&C) systems with a view to extending operational life to 40 years (2025). Framatome ANP is replacing the I&C systems progressively to 2008.
Slovakia is reviving plans to complete Mochovce units 3 & 4, supported by a recent feasibility study.
Fuel cycle
All fuel supply is contracted from TVEL in Russia.
Radioactive Waste Management
Policy is for spent fuel to be disposed of without reprocessing. In 1996 the decommissioning and radioactive waste management organisation (SE-VYZ) was set up as a subsidiary of SE, based at Bohunice. Then a separate subsidiary of SE - Decom - was set up as a consultancy and to focus on decommissioning.
An interim wet storage facility for spent fuel at Bohunice supplements reactor storage ponds, and has a capacity of 1680 tonnes (14,000 fuel assemblies). Some spent fuel has been exported to Russia.
Site selection for an underground high-level waste repository has commenced.
A treatment and conditioning plant for low- and intermediate-level wastes is at Bohunice, with repository at Mochovce.
A state fund for radwaste management and decommissioning was set up in 1995, with a levy of 10% of the wholesale price of electricity being paid into it by SE. It is expected top amount to SK 31 billion (EUR 775 million) by 2010.
A long-term spent fuel storage facility is expected to cost about SK 4 billion (EUR 100 million). Decom, with the Association for Regional & International Underground Storage (ARIUS - based in Switzerland), is running an EC-funded project to undertake a pilot study on the technical and legal requirements for a regional waste repository. This SAPIERR project is related to the needs of countries with smaller nuclear programs, and it involves 21 organisations from 14 countries.
The first phase of decommissioning the A1 reactor is due to be completed in 2007. The cost of decommissioning the two Bohunice V1 reactors is expected to be some SK 10 billion (EUR 250 million).
Regulation and safety
The Nuclear Regulatory Authority of the Slovak Republic (UJDSR) is the independent regulatory body responsible for licensing, safety, waste management, radiation protection and safeguards.
In 1999 WENRA, the Western European Nuclear Regulators Association, reported that the country's nuclear regulatory regime was comparable with those in Western Europe.
Non-proliferation
The Slovak Republic is a party to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) since 1993 as a non-nuclear weapons state. Its safeguards agreement under the NPT came into force in 1993 and a new agreement in 1999. It is member of the Nuclear Suppliers' Group and since May 2004, of Euratom. The Additional Protocol in relation to its safeguards agreements with the IAEA was signed in 1999.
Main References:
IAEA 2002, Country Nuclear Power Profiles
Faccio notare che un paese piccolo ( circa 50.000 kmqcontro i 300.000 kmq italiani ) ma in gamba come la Slovacchia certi problemi li sa affrontare
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evidentemente la popolazione può essere intelligente e INFORMATA, e quindi favorevole.




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